Details
Region Additional (if applicable)
Egyptian
Region
Category
Hero
Gender
Female
Time Period
69-30 BCE; reign 51-30 BCE (Ptolemaic Period)
Symbol
Lotus Flower
Tags
egyptian, hero, queen, ptolemaic, rome
Introduction
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt and the final pharaoh of ancient Egypt before its annexation by Rome in 30 BCE. She occupies a unique position in history - simultaneously a documented historical figure and a cultural icon whose image has been shaped by Roman propaganda, Shakespearean drama, Hollywood cinema, and modern scholarship. She was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language, and she presented herself as the living incarnation of Isis, the goddess of magic, motherhood, and queenship.
Her twenty-one-year reign represents the final act of three thousand years of pharaonic civilization - the last time an Egyptian monarch would rule from the Nile, the last time the double crown was worn, and the last time the crook and flail would be wielded by a sovereign of Egypt. Plutarch, the primary ancient biographer of Cleopatra, wrote that her actual beauty "was not in itself so remarkable that none could be compared with her," but her intellect, wit, charm, and eloquence made her presence "irresistible." Coins from her reign depict her with prominent features characteristic of Macedonian Greek aristocracy - realistic portrayals rather than idealized beauty.
Gallery
Who or What was...
Cleopatra VII
Cleopatra belonged to the Ptolemaic Dynasty, founded by Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemies practiced brother-sister marriage for nearly three hundred years, preserving their Macedonian bloodline. Cleopatra was likely the first Ptolemaic ruler to actually learn the Egyptian language - her predecessors had governed Egypt for centuries while speaking only Greek. Plutarch records that she was fluent in at least nine languages: Egyptian, Greek, Ethiopian, Troglodyte, Hebrew, Arabian, Syrian, Median, and Parthian - a remarkable linguistic achievement that allowed her to converse with foreign diplomats without interpreters.
Her political career began in crisis. She initially co-ruled with her younger brother Ptolemy XIII, but the two soon became embroiled in a civil war. In 48 BCE, Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria. To meet him secretly after her brother had driven her into exile, Cleopatra allegedly had herself rolled in a carpet (or linen bundle) and smuggled into Caesar's quarters. Their alliance produced a son, Caesarion ("Little Caesar"), and restored Cleopatra to the throne. She later traveled to Rome as Caesar's guest, staying in his villa across the Tiber until his assassination on the Ides of March, 44 BCE.
Cleopatra's legendary meeting with Mark Antony at Tarsus in 41 BCE is one of history's most theatrical political events. She sailed up the Cydnus River in a golden barge with purple sails, rowed by silver oars, attended by servants dressed as Nereids and cupids, while she reclined beneath a canopy of gold dressed as Aphrodite. Antony - who styled himself Dionysus - was captivated. Their alliance produced three children and eventually led to the Donations of Alexandria in 34 BCE, in which Cleopatra and Antony distributed eastern territories to their children: Alexander Helios ("King of Kings"), Cleopatra Selene, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. This act - treating Roman territories as personal gifts - was used by Octavian as propaganda to portray Antony as a traitor under foreign influence.
The Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BCE, sealed their fate. The combined naval forces of Cleopatra and Antony were defeated by Octavian. Cleopatra's fleet broke through the blockade and fled to Egypt. After a year of desperate negotiation, Antony committed suicide upon receiving false news of Cleopatra's death. Cleopatra then took her own life on August 12, 30 BCE, at age thirty-nine - whether by asp bite (the traditional story recorded by Plutarch) or poison remains debated among historians. Her two handmaidens, Iras and Charmion, died with her. According to tradition, when Octavian's soldier chided Charmion's service to her dying queen, Charmion replied: "It is indeed most fine, and befitting the descendant of so many kings."
Summary
Cleopatra implemented significant economic reforms during her reign, including currency standardization that approximated Egyptian bronze coinage to the Roman denarius. A surviving papyrus in the Berlin Museum contains her handwritten annotation in Greek: Ginestho - "Make it happen." After her death, Egypt became a Roman province, and her son Caesarion was executed by Octavian. Her children by Antony were raised in Rome by Octavia (Octavian's sister); Cleopatra Selene later became Queen of Mauretania. Temple reliefs at Dendera show Cleopatra and Caesarion as divine figures - the best-preserved contemporary depictions. Her tomb has never been found; Octavian honored her request to be buried alongside Antony, but the location remains one of Egyptology's greatest mysteries.
References
Validation References: 1. Plutarch, Life of Antony (primary ancient biographical source, c. 100 CE). 2. Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 50-51 (contemporary Roman account, 3rd century CE). 3. Schiff, Stacy. Cleopatra: A Life. Little, Brown and Company, 2010. 4. Roller, Duane W. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford University Press, 2010. 5. Temple reliefs at Dendera - best-preserved contemporary depictions of Cleopatra and Caesarion. 6. Papyrus in the Berlin Museum (P. 25239) containing Cleopatra's handwritten annotation. 7. Coins from Cyprus and Ascalon - realistic contemporary portraits. 8. Burstein, Stanley M. The Reign of Cleopatra. Greenwood Press, 2004.